Cebuano grammar

 ( Cebuano Language ) 

Cebuano grammar encompasses the rules that define the Cebuano language, the most widely spoken of all the languages in the Visayan Group of languages, spoken in Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, part of Leyte island, part of Samar island, Negros Oriental, especially in Dumaguete, and the majority of cities and provinces of Mindanao.

Cebuano has eight basic parts of speech: , , , , , particles, and conjunctions. Cebuano is an agglutinative yet partially inflected language: pronouns are inflected for number, and verbs are inflected for aspect, focus, and Grammatical mood.

Cebuano verbs are morphologically complex and take on a variety of affixes reflecting voice, quality, aspect, mood, and others. Cebuano arguably follows Austronesian alignment. Basically, verbs conjugate by using these affixes according to which argumentative role the noun in the direct case has. This noun in the direct case can be the doer of the action, the recipient of the action, the purpose for the action, or the means by which the action was made possible; which are all argumentative roles. The direct case hides the noun's otherwise-evident argumentative role, which the verb then makes up for by conjugating with specific affixes that indicate which argumentative role the noun in the direct case has. Some Cebuano grammar teachers call the noun in the direct case the topic of the sentence, but some others call it the focus, voice, or trigger; as the verb and the other nouns in the sentence have all their noun markers and affixes change accordingly.

Cebuano has four voices:

1. the active voice a.k.a. the agent trigger
2. the passive voice for direct objects a.k.a. the patient trigger
3. the passive voice for indirect objects and/or locations a.k.a. the circumstantial trigger
4. the passive voice for instruments a.k.a. the instrument trigger.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the topic in Cebuano, is ang or si.

To avoid ambiguity;

Súlat - is a noun which refers to the word letter.

Sulát - is a verb which means to write.

The three cases are direct, indirect, and Oblique case. The noun markers and pronouns follow their own particular set of rules for syntax and grammar.

The indirect case also functions as a genitive.

• Postposed meaning it comes after the noun: irô nakò (my dog).
• Preposed meaning it comes before the noun: akóng irô (my dog).

Examples (Those marked with an asterisk, "*", are ungrammatical):

But...

Akó si Juan.
Akó mao'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa.
     

• Present: "X is here/there now"
• Past: "X was here/there"
• Future: "X will be here/there"

The present and future tense forms can precede or follow the words or phrases they modify by linking with nga. The past tense forms, however, only have a past meaning if they precede their words or phrases. If they follow, they convey no tense.

The allative forms are always tenseless. They follow the words or phrases they modify and can substitute equivalent past forms. In addition, they show movement or motion to the relative location which past forms cannot.

• Direct – This is the case of focus or topic. This case is used in both actor-focus and non-actor focus verb forms. This case follows the Austronesian alignment. The verb partly conjugates according to the argumentative role inherit within the noun that is marked by this case.
• Indirect – This is the case of the actor/agent/doer in non-actor focus verb forms. This is also the case of possession/ownership and works similar to the genitive case.
• Oblique case – A peripheral case; this is the case of the indirect object, the direct object, and/or the instrument in both actor-focus verb sentences and non-actor focus verb sentences, when the noun it modifies is also not the focus/topic. It is used to mention anything beyond the topic or focus other than the indirect case that might still be important for context and communication. Simply put, it is to mark any noun that is neither the actor/agent/doer nor the topic/focus of the sentence.

*Archaic.
^†For example, "Siláy niadto" or "Unsay atò?".

The use of sa vs. og in the indirect and oblique case is a matter of definiteness when the noun is the object of an actor-focus verb. Compare the following examples.

1. Definite Mipalít si Juan sa sakyanán . John bought the car.
2. Indefinite Mipalít si Juan og sakyanán . John bought a car.

In example sentence 1, the car that John bought is particular. It may have been a car he was thinking about buying or one that the speaker was selling John. In 2, the speaker may or may not know the specifics about the car in question.

Sa and og can both be used for the roles of the genitive case, but only sa can be used for the actor or agent case. Og is used for adverbs as well.

There are special cases though:

1. Adding the prefix ka- before and the suffix -an can pluralize a noun (the suffix -han is used if the root word ends with a vowel). This word treatment is used to group what are considered identical objects as one entity. Examples are:

• libot, which is regularly used as a verb meaning to go around but in this case is used as a noun meaning "surrounding" (as in palibot), can be changed to kalibotan, which means "world" (or 'the entire surroundings').
• tawo, which means "man" or "person", can be changed to katawhan, which means "men" or "people". The vowel "o" is omitted in this case because the "w" carries the sound of "o" by itself.
• baláy (house): kabalayán (houses)
• batà (child/boy/girl): kabata-an. The suffix used here is -an instead of -han since batà /bataʔ/ ends in a glottal stop.
• "nasud" (nation): "kanasuran" (nations). The "d" changed to "r" because that usually (not always) happens to "d" when placed between two vowels, though in Cebuano, d and r are not allophones, unlike in other Philippine languages.

Although it is tolerable in some cases, the use of mga before a noun applied with ka- -an is not necessary anymore. ang mga kabata-an (the children) is considered redundant, and ang kabata-an is more grammatically accurate.

Because the use of ka- -an groups objects into one entity, there are cases that a word will mean a place of which the objects are frequently or usually found/exist. An example is:

• kasagingán (from the root word saging (banana)) does not mean "bananas". Instead, it means 'a place of bananas' or simply "banana farm".

2. There is this very rare case in which an adjective can be pluralized, and the noun it describes can be, but is not necessarily, omitted. Example: the word gamáy (small) can be changed to gagmay (small ones), in which "g" was inserted in between the first and second syllable. The same rule can be applied to dakô, which means 'big', changing it to dagkò (big ones). Other examples are:

• taás (long): tag-as (long ones)
• mubô (short): mugbò (short ones)
• layô (far): lagyò (far ones)
• duól (near): dug-ol (near ones)
• nipís (thin): nigpis (thin ones)
• lapád (wide): lagpad (wide ones)

This rule cannot be applied to all other adjectives.

The comparative degree is expressed in the following ways:

• Precede the adjective with labí pa ("more still")
• Precede the adjective with the particle mas (from Spanish language más)

It is formed by prefixing pagká- or ka- (short form) to the root. The subject follows in the Oblique case.

Examples:

'''Pagkanindot kanimo!''' (Full)
'''Kanindot nimo!''' (Short)
''How pretty you are! You are extremely pretty!''
     

Examples:

Ang mga duwende mugbò '''kaayo'''.
''Dwarves are'' very ''short''.
     

After words that end in a monophthong, diphthong or -n, nga is optionally reduced to the suffix -ng /-ŋ/.

Unlike Tagalog language, which uses the linker na for all modifiers, including numbers, the Cebuano linker nga is not used with numbers; ka, as shown below, is used instead.

1. na: references a past situation to the present
• (in positive statements): now, already
• : aduna na/naa na — it now exists
• :: (nuance: it didn't exist before)
• (in negative statements): anymore
• : walâ na — it doesn't exist anymore
• :: (nuance: it existed before)
2. pa: references a future situation to the present
• (in positive statements): still
• : aduna pa/naa pa — it still exists
• :: (nuance: it will not exist sometime after)
• (in negative statements): yet
• : walâ pa — it doesn't exist yet
• :: (nuance: ''it will exist sometime after)
3. ba: used for yes-and-no questions and optionally for other types of questions.
4. ra/da and lang/lamanɡ: limiting particle; just, only.
5. gyud/gayúd, gyud is pronounced as d͡ʒud or gjud. In informal communications, it is also occasionally written as jud bitáw, lagí, ganì: ganì can also be galì, and may be pronounced as gaì ɡai̯ʔ indeed; used in affirmations or emphasis.
6. usáb,The u in usáb, upód, and ugód, as in many other words beginning with u, are frequently dropped, making it sab, pod, and god; in spoken Cebuano, sad is often used instead of sab. upód: also, too
7. man, ugód: expresses (new) information, or contradicts a previous statement
8. uróy: corrects a (supposed) misconception
9. : person 1: walâ pa ka mahumán? — aren't you done yet?
10. : person 2: humán na uróy! — I am!
11. bayâ: expresses admonition; watch out
12. : mamaak bayâ na'ng iroa — watch out! that dog bites
13. diáy: indicates that the speaker has received new information
14. dà:
• ( initial in a clause): there, I told you so!
• : dà, nasamad hinuon — I told you! now you've hurt yourself
• ( ending a clause): expresses sudden, unexpected, or unwanted emotion; as when remembering something forgotten
• : gitugnaw ko dà! — I feel cold! (nuance: I didn't expect to become cold)
15. kunó, daw: indicates second-hand information; he said, it is said, reportedly, allegedly, etc.
16. guro/siguro, tingalì:informally pronounced as tingaì tiˈŋai̯ʔ expresses uncertainty; probably, maybe
17. kahâ/kayhâ: expresses wonder; I wonder, perhaps
18. untà, maytà (short for " maayo untà"): expresses hope; I hope
19. kay: indicates cause; because.
• also used as a linking word in sentences with Subject-Predicate structure (compare "is/was/be" in English)
• : si Maria kay nabuntis — Maria was pregnant
20. maó: (it/he/she) is/was/will be the one...
21. : si Maria maó'y nabuntis — it was Maria who got pregnant
22. ganì: even
23. bisan: even though, even if, although
24. hinuon (shortened to " nuon"): instead, however, rather; as a result
25. usâ: for now, for the time being
26. intawon: expresses pity
27. puhón: God willing, in the future

The following are particles that are usually only found at the end of a sentence:

1. ha: asks listener if they understand, or if they agree
2. : dilì ni sabunán, ha? — don’t wash this with soap, do you understand?
3. no, sa (from " unsá" meaning "what?"): asks to clarify; isn't that right?
• (with prior knowledge, confirmation): no
• : dilì ka moinóm, no? — you don't drink liquor, do you?
• :: (nuance: the speaker knew beforehand that the person doesn't drink)
• (without prior knowledge, assumption): sa
• : dilì ka moinóm, sa? — you don't drink liquor, do you?
• :: (nuance: the speaker didn't know beforehand that the person doesn't drink)
4. ay: ay and uy/oy also function as interjections when found at the beginning of sentences; ay roughly translates to oh or oops in English, while uy/oy could mean hey/oi follows a word to call someone's attention to it
5. : tua sa iskina ay! — it’s right there at the corner!
6. uy/oy:
• expresses annoyance
• expresses surprise upon discovering something

These particles can be paired with one or more particles to form a more specific meaning. One exception is with na and pa, which cannot be used in the same sentence.

1. maó + ra + og = murág: like, seemingly
2. maó + gyud/bitáw/lagí/ganì: that is so; strongly affirming a statement
3. maó + ra + pud + nuon: that’s the only thing that’s wrong with it
4. ba + gud: expresses disbelief; how is it possible that (so-and-so) should happen?
5. na + lang: now it is only (so-and-so much) when it was more before; (so-and-so) will do it, though it should not be so
6. pa + lang: (such-and-such) was the first; lest (so-and-so) happen; if (so-and-so) had been the case
7. etc.

• Unsá? What?
• Asa? Where? (esp. for a place or person)
• Diín?, Dis-a? Where? (esp. for past occurrence)
• Hain?, Saa/Asa? Where? (esp. for an object)
• Kinsa? Who?
• Kang kinsa? To whom?
• Ngano? Why?
• Giunsa? How? (past)
• Unsaon? How? (future)
• Kanus-a? When?
• Pila (ka buok)? How many?
• Tagpila? How much?
• Ikapila? What order?
• Di-ay ba? Really?

The words asa, diín, and hain can be used interchangeably in everyday speech. Although their use is distinguished in formal contexts:

Asa is used when asking about a place.

• Asa ka padulóng? (Where are you going?)
• Asa ta molarga? (Where are we traveling to?)

Hain is used when asking about the location of a thing.

• Hain ang gunting? (Where is the pair of scissors?)
• Hain na ang pagka-on sa pista? (Where is the food for the festival)

It is worth noting that in spoken Cebuano, asa has slowly become the main word for where. In fact, hain, except by older generations, is rarely used.

The affixes that are used to altogether describe the argumentative role, the voice, the form, the mood, and the aspect/tense cannot be added to the verb root, only to the verb stem.

The verb stem may be created through the addition of certain affixes that are not related to the affixes used to altogether describe the argumentative role, the voice, the form, the mood, and the aspect/tense of the sentence. Sometimes, the verb stem is identical to the verb root.

A commonly known verb stem affix is the prefix pa-, added to the beginning of a verb root (and sometimes, other verb stems) in order to convey the meaning of to cause. For example, padalá is a verb stem that has the meaning of to send, while dalá is its own verb root and verb stem, meaning to bring. Concluding that padalá could literally mean to cause to bring. Another commonly known affix is the prefix hi- which is added to verb roots/stems in the s tative form so that the verb may take in a d irect object, as verbs in the s tative form are not able to take a direct object without it.

The prefixes naka- and maka- (mostly used for this mood) may be shortened to ka- in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which gets rid of the aspect/tense found within these prefixes. Similarly, the prefixes naga- and maga- are colloquially shortened to ga-, however, ga- is usually considered as past and/or strictly present tense.

• Nikuha siya og saging - He/she took a banana
• Mokaon ko og saging - I will eat a banana/I eat bananas

• Nagkuha/ nanguha siya og saging pag-abot nimo - He was taking a banana when you arrived
• Nagkaon ko og saging pagkuha niya - I was eating a banana when he/she took (it)

• Nakuha niya ang saging - The banana was caught by him/her
• Nakaon nako ang panit sa saging - I unwillingly ate the banana peel

• Nagkuha ay sila og saging - They took bananas together
• Nagkan- anay ( nagkaon ay) sila - They ate each other

The nasugdan aspect is the aspect where the action had already started in the past, while the pagasugdan aspect is the aspect where the action has not started yet. Basically, past and present actions are in the nasugdan aspect while future actions and habitual actions are in the pagasugdan aspect. Although habitual actions started in the past, they have yet to start again. Hence, they are in the pagasugdan aspect.

The Imperative mood (imperative/command) mood is commonly grouped together with these aspects (and not with the other moods) because there are multiple imperatives of the same verb that exist according to which form is in use.

In Cebuano, verbs may also conjugate for or to agree with negatibo (negative) sentences. However, the verb itself is not negative, it just agrees with the negative words wala and dili through the negatibo verbal affixes. Wala is used for the nasugdan aspect and dili is used for the pagasugdan aspect. Ayaw is used as the negative imperative, see Imperative mood.

Not all groups of affixes can be used for some verbs; some verbs may not make sense with certain groups of affixes. For example, the verb stem anhi (to come) cannot have any of the passive voices' affixes; it would not make sense with such affixes.

The only way to know which groups of affixes are able to be used for each verb stem are through memorization/experience. In addition to that, in certain verbs, the affixes take on different meanings and may overlap or replace other affixes in different forms due to historical use. For example, the verb stem buák (to break) uses the same affixes that is used in the potential mood as the affixes used for the transitory form in the indicative mood. Using the normal affixes of the transitory form in the active voice for buák would sound incorrect to native speakers. Despite all that, the way the affixes are labeled are the way they are mostly used regardless.

Some affixes may be missing from the examples.

These affixes not only have the essence that they are instantaneous, but they also have the essence of intention; that the topic willed for it to happen. It also has the essence of motion or movement. The prefix mi- is more formal than ni- ; otherwise, they are interchangeable. It is common to use pag- because it is a common imperative affix in the active voice in Cebuano.

With verb stems like adto, mo- may sometimes be used as the nasugdan aspect because although it started in the past and may still be going on, the destination may not have been reached yet. Adto also means to go, and when used in the present tense, it is understandable that it may use mo- for a nasugdan aspect.

The prefixes naka- and maka- may be shortened to ka- in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may get rid of the aspect within the prefixes. This could be similar to naga- and maga- being shortened to ga-.

Plurality depends on whether the topic is a plural noun. The topic may be the subject, the object, etc., however, because this is the active voice, the topic should always be the Subject with these plural affixes. As long as the subjects are plural, the plural version is usually used, but this is not always mandatory. Some verbs only use the plural version while other verbs are rarely used in their plural versions.

* The "ng" in nang- and mang- may change to "m" or "n" or delete the next consonant depending on the succeeding consonant. Refer to the Morphological Process of Assimilation in Cebuano for more information.

Sometimes pang- is used as the plural version of the imperatibo mood.

 a) "Maó kiní ang Kabisay-an."              = This is the Visayas.
 b) "Magbinisayâ mi diri."                  = We speak Cebuano here.
 c) "Kamaó/Kahibaló ka magbinisayâ?"        = Do you know how to speak Cebuano?
     

 a) "Filipino ang mga Bisayâ."              = Visayans are Filipinos.
 b) "Unsa ang imong kinahanglan?"           = What do you need?
 c) "Naunsa na ang politika?"               = How are the politics?
     

 a) "Adunay Diyós sa langit."               = There is a God in heaven.
 b) "Didtoy halas sa kahoy."                = There was a snake in the tree.
     

 a) "Adunay Diyós ang mga anghél sa langit." = The angels in heaven have a God.
 b) "Naa''Naa'' often replaces ''aduna''/''duna''. koy ilimnon sa baláy." = I have something to drink at home.
     

 a) "Ania ang kwarta."                       = Here is the money.
 b) "Tuá siyá sa bukid."                     = He/she is on the mountain.
     

 a) "Tugnaw dinhí sa Baguio."                 = It is cold here in Baguio.
 b) "Init kaayo ang adlaw dirí sa Sugbo."     = The weather is very hot here in Cebu.
     

 a) "Daghana nimo'g sakyanán!"             = You have plenty of cars!
 b) "Gwapaha nimo!"                        = You are pretty!
 c) "Kasabà ba ninyo!"                     = You are so noisy!
     

 a) "Isugba kanáng isdà."                  = Grill that fish.
 b) "Ngarí/Alî/Halî dirí."                 = Come here.
 c) "Ayáw mo panabakô dirí."               = Do not smoke here.
     

 a) "Kinsa ka?"                             = Who are you?
 b) "Unsa'y imong ngalan?"                  = What is your name?
     

 a) "Kiní ba ang Kabisay-an?"               = Is this the Visayas?
 b) "Kamao ka ba molangóy?"                 = Do you know how to swim?
 c) "Unsa ba ang sinultihán ninyo?"         = What language do you speak?
 d) "Isugba ba kining isdà?"                = Shall this fish be grilled?